Essay Writing: Philosophical Evidence

Types of Philosophical Evidence

What types of evidence can we use in a philosophical argument?

1. The arguments of other philosophers

2. Logical reasoning

3. Conceptual Analysis

4. Thought Experiments

Our task in Philosophy is to answer the question with as much certainty as possible. We can use all these techniques to do this

Let’s begin

1)   The arguments of other philosophers

How do we choose which philosophers to use?

Well, with an essay argument, there’s always (at least) two sides. So, let’s choose philosophers on opposing sides.

We can then address both sides of the argument, and in doing so, we can create objections and counter objections. Now, objections are different from alternative arguments. It’s important not to confuse this.

An objection needs to be a claim in direct opposition to the specific argument you’re making. And the argument your making might include different arguments from philosophers. Don’t conflate the two facts.  

In any case, any philosophy essay needs to use other philosophers to contextualise your argument. At least until you become an expert.

2)   Logical reasoning (deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning)

With this – we don’t need to use every form of reasoning in the same argument. Choose the most appropriate.  

Deductive reasoning is the most philosophical.

It is focused on going from general premises to specific conclusions.

The classic example is the following – it is a valid and sound argument:

P1: Sam is a bachelor

P2: All bachelors are unmarried men

C: Therefore, Sam is an unmarried man

It is complicated by the fact that deductive can be logically valid but contain false premises (P). For example,

P1: All bald men are grandfathers.              

P2: Harold is bald.

C: Therefore, Harold is a grandfather,"

This argument is logically valid, but it isn’t sound because P1 is false – not all bald men are grandfathers.

The consequence of this is that arguments can be logical, but because of their content, can still be untrue.

Building on the work of previous philosophers is therefore useful, as we can generally infer that that their arguments have been screened for validity and truthity. That said, arguments in published papers can still be incorrect, so be on the look out for this in any case. It’ll help you produce original conclusions.

One really useful exercise that I advise my students to do is to summarise their essay paragraph into individual premises. They might be long and complicated, but it is usually possible. If you do this for each paragraph, you can look at all the paragraphs in premise form, and in doing so, track the validity and soundness of the argument.

Moving forward, the other types of reasoning (inductive and abductive) are used less obviously in philosophy.

Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to general conclusions, usually based on patterns in repeat experience.

I like to think of inductive reasoning as past tense.

Here’s an example: I tend to catch colds when people around me are sick, therefore colds are infectious.

This type of reasoning is really useful, because it allows us to make quick judgements based on evidence, that will help us as we navigate through the world.

That said, you can see why we wouldn’t want to rely on this sort of example in philosophy.

Here’s an example:

Based on the people I’ve met, people tend to have different opinions about morality. Therefore, morality is relative.

Now, some might look at this and say - "plausible". Yes, but it isn’t convincing in the same way that deductive arguments are.

In contrast, abductive reasoning is looking for the best explanation. It is not based on past truths, it is based on the most likely explanations.

People have different opinions about morality; therefore it is most likely that moral judgements are context-dependent, and morality relative.

From these examples, we can see how deductive arguments are the most convincing, because the truthity of the argument is condensed into the premises. This is different for inductive and abductive arguments, where we are making a reasoned guess.

3)   Conceptual Analysis

This is something that encompasses all philosophical argumentation.

If Philosophy is anything, it’s questioning, examining and developing concepts.

For example, goodness is a concept that represents debates on morality (which itself is a concept).

We do this analysis to break down concepts into exhibiting certain truths, which then confirm that our understanding of the concept is correct.

Doing this analysis can also generate new concepts, or can connect concepts together.

We want to use this form of analysis to help support the logic of our argument. So, if a concept is central to your argument, it’d be good to break it down in order to show the ways in which it connects to your argument.

4)   Thought Experiments

With arguments, yes, it’s important to produce sound arguments, but it also important to convince people of their soundness.

This improves agreeability. It doesn’t necessarily add logical validity to the argument, but it does allow others to internalise the argument.

A classic example is the Trolley Problem. It is created to illuminate the differences between different ethical theories. Now, a logical argument could be created to do this, but it wouldn’t connect with people in the same way, and wouldn’t prompt the same level of engagement.

My take is that thought experiments are the cherry on top. Use them to compliment an argument, not to establish an argument.

In summary

At root – Philosophy is questioning. Our role is to question assumptions, and formulate arguments to evaluate their validity. As you’ve seen, we do this in various ways, for various reasons. If you can master these ways, you will be practicing Philosophy in the right ways, with an understanding of the degree to which we can claim truth. This is central to essay writing, and an important part of your journey through academia.

So, what assumptions will you investigate next? And more interestingly, what evidence will you use?

Keep Learning